Scientia Agropecuaria

Integration of VANT-LiDAR with multispectral imagery for the estimation of carbon stocks in Prosopis sp. forest plantations

Resumen Los individuos del género Prosopis sp. conocidos como algarrobos; son especies claves en el desarrollo del bosque seco y recuperación de áreas degradadas en la Costa norte del Perú. La evaluación de plantaciones, cálculo de la biomasa aérea forestal (BAF) y carbono almacenado representa un papel importante en el manejo forestal y mitigación del cambio climático. Este estudio evalúa metodologías de monitoreo a través del uso de imágenes multiespectrales y LiDAR acopladas a un VANT, con la finalidad de realizar su validación y generar modelos que permitan estimar el carbono almacenado. Se evaluaron siete especies de Prosopis sp. con la metodología convencional y se encontraron diferencias significativas entre las especies para las características dasométricas e índices de vegetación, así como en la comparación con los datos obtenidos con el LiDAR. Se seleccionaron modelos para determinar BAF y la asociación entre el carbono aéreo obtenido con los modelos constituidos por datos de LiDAR e índices de vegetación que presentaron correlaciones significativas (p < 0,05), se construyeron siete modelos para predicción de carbono y destaca el modelo que tiene como variables regresoras la altura total y área de copa obtenidas del LiDAR, así como los índices CIgreen, GNDVI, RECI, LCI y NDVI (R² = 0,77). Lo cual confirma que el uso de la metodología LiDAR con los índices de vegetación permite una estimación más práctica del carbono almacenado en la plantación.

Abstract The Prosopis sp. individuals known as carob trees are key species in the development of dry forest and recovery of degraded areas in the northern coast of Peru. The evaluation of plantations, calculation of aboveground forest biomass (AFB) and carbon stock represent an important role in forest management and climate change mitigation. This study evaluates monitoring methodologies using multispectral and LiDAR images coupled to a UAV, to validate them and generate models to estimate carbon stocks. Seven species of Prosopis sp. were evaluated with the conventional methodology and significant differences were found between species for dasometric characteristics and vegetation indices, as well as in the comparison with the data obtained with LiDAR. Models were selected to determine BAF and the association between the aerial carbon obtained with the models constituted by LiDAR data and vegetation indexes that presented significant correlations (p < 0.05), seven models were built for carbon prediction and the model that has as regressor variables the total height and crown area obtained from LiDAR, as well as the indexes CIgreen, GNDVI, RECI, LCI and NDVI (R² = 0.77) stands out. This confirms that the use of the LiDAR methodology with the vegetation indices allows a more practical estimation of the carbon stored in the plantation.

Antioxidant activity and seed vigor in germination of bean under salt stress conditions

Abstract Using seeds with higher physiological potential can help overcome saline stress, affecting many arable areas in tropical and subtropical regions. This study aimed to evaluate whether seed vigor contributes to overcoming saline stress, seeking to identify the association between the antioxidant system and seed lot vigor. Seeds of the BAF55 genotype with two levels of vigor were used. The seeds were germinated under no-stress conditions, with 75 and 150 mmol L-1 of sodium chloride in the solution during germination. After five days, morphological changes and changes in the enzyme’s catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, proline, malondialdehyde, and hydrogen peroxide were evaluated. An increase in antioxidant activity was observed with the imposed stresses and no significant difference was observed between the vigor level, except in the condition of 75 mmol L-1 in the hypocotyl of the seedlings and, for proline in the condition of 150 mmol L-1 in which the low-vigor presented greater activity. The stress of 150 mmol L-1 showed greater severity in seeds of low-vigor, resulting in greater lipid peroxidation in the seedlings formed and resulting in seedlings with lower performance.

Impact of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, white fungus waste, and nano fertilizer on pyrophosphatase activity, growth characteristics, and yield of stevia plant

Abstract Aimed to know the effect of Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria, white fungus waste, and nano fertilizer on the pyrophosphatase enzyme, growth characteristics, and yield of stevia plants. The bacterial vaccine represented the first factor. It was added at two levels: B0 (without inoculum) and B1 (injecting 2 ml of liquid bio-inoculum represented by P. aeruginosa). The second factor was adding white fungus waste at three levels defined by Ab0 (without adding white mushroom waste), Ab1 (adding white mushroom waste at level 5 tons/h), and Ab2 (adding white mushroom waste at level 10 tons/h). Nano fertilizer was added as a third factor at four levels: N0 (without adding nano fertilizer), N1 (adding 4 kg/h of nano zinc), N2 (adding 2 kg/h of nano boron), and N3 (adding a mixture of 1 kg/h of nano boron + 2 kg/h of nano zinc). The triple combination B1Ab1N3 achieved a significant superiority in the activity of the pyrophosphatase enzyme in the first and second harvests and recorded (260.67 and 166.00) µg PO4 -3-P/g soil 5/h, respectively, compared to the treatment without addition, which recorded (55.00 and 44.67) µg PO4 -3-P/g soil 5/h, respectively. In contrast, the triple combination B1Ab2N3 achieved the highest growth and yield characteristics of the stevia plant and recorded the highest rate of plant height, dry weight of leaves and total yield, and recorded 83.90 and 76.00 cm/plant, 61.7 and 53.0 g/plant, 4933 and 4240 kg/h, respectively, compared to the treatment without addition, which recorded 68.98 and 60.63 cm/plant, 44.6 and 38.1 g/plant, 3563 and 3050 kg/h respectively.

An effective disinfection protocol for contamination control in vitro establishment of Mortiño (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth) and identification of endogenous microbes

Abstract The Vaccinium genus consists of a variety of berries with high nutritious components consumed worldwide leading to the development of micropropagation protocols to supply the demand. Mortiño, the Andean Blueberry (Vaccinium floribundum Kunth) is a wild berry that grows in high-altitude grasslands with nutritious and commercial potential in Ecuador. In this study, the use of PPMTM (Plant Preservative Mixture™) was effective controlling contamination for the in vitro establishment of Vaccinium floribundum Kunth in contrast to a conventional method using EtOH and Clorox. Stems were defoliated and cut into 1 cm segments, then immersed in liquid MS (Murashige & Skoog) supplemented with 5% v/v PPMTM without pH adjustment for 5 hours under constant shaking. After immersion, segments were transferred to flasks containing WPM (Woody Plant Media) medium supplemented with an additional 2 mlL-1 PPMTM. Persistent microbial contaminants in the in vitro explants were isolated and identified through molecular methods and gene sequences analyzed using the GenBank database resulted in the identification of three bacterial species: Methylobacterium sp., Methylobacterium radiotolerans, and Bacillus pumilus. In addition, three fungal species were also discovered: Xylaria sp., Xylaria feejeensis, and Diaporthe lutecens. Additionally, a multiplication assay was made with the aseptic stems from the sterilization protocol to evaluate four different growth regulators: 2ip, kinetin, zeatin and meta-topolin. kinetin showed very low responses with a mean of 1.2 shoots per stem. The highest number of shoots per stem (9 shoots) was obtained with 5 mg L-1 2ip. The use of zeatin and meta-topolin facilitated shoot proliferation with the following concentrations: 3 mg L-1 zeatin + 0.5 mg L-1 NAA (1-Naphthaleneacetic Acid) and 3 mg L-1 Meta-topolin + 0.5 mg L-1 NAA. These findings demonstrate the successful establishment of an in vitro disinfection and multiplication protocol for V. floribundum. Moreover, the identification of endogenous microbial communities highlights the complex interaction between native endophytes and plant tissues under in vitro conditions, offering a foundation for future studies on plant-microbe dynamics and their influence on micropropagation efficiency.

Strains of Akanthomyces uredinophilum, Simplicillium lanosoniveum, and Trichoderma spp. exhibit high endophytic activity and induce improved growth of coffee plants

Resumen El cultivo de café (Coffea arabica L.) es afectado por la roya (Hemileia vastatrix) que causa pérdidas de más del 70% en la producción, el uso de hongos endófitos es una estrategia biológica para el control de enfermedades. El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la actividad endófita de 14 cepas de hongos y su efecto en el crecimiento de plantas de café var. Caturra. Se inocularon semillas de café con una concentración de 1×106 conidios mL-1 de agua, se sembraron y organizaron en diseño experimental completamente al azar, tres repeticiones de ocho plantas por cepa. A los 30, 60 y 120 días después de la emergencia de plántulas, se tomaron muestras de cinco segmentos de hoja por planta, de 5 mm de diámetro y se evaluó la actividad endófita, se registró inicio de crecimiento del hongo (días), crecimiento inicial del hongo (%) y crecimiento total del hongo (%). Para evaluar el efecto de las cepas de hongo en el crecimiento de las plantas de café se evaluaron altura de planta, diámetro de tallo, número de hojas, pares de hojas, número de ramas e índice de contenido de clorofila. Se realizó análisis de varianza y prueba de separación de medias Tukey (p ≤ 0,05). Tres cepas de A. uredinophilum (CHE-CNRCB 435, 616 y 988), dos de S. lanosoniveum (CHE-CNRCB 438 y 544) y tres de Trichoderma (CHE-CNRCB 398, 1057 y 1062) presentaron actividad endófita mayor al 70%; las tres cepas de Trichoderma spp., indujeron mejor crecimiento de plantas de café.

Abstract The cultivation of coffee (Coffea arabica L.) is affected by rust (Hemileia vastatrix), causing losses of over 70% in production. The use of endophytic fungi is a biological strategy for disease control. The objective of this study was to evaluate the endophytic activity of 14 fungal strains and their effect on the growth of coffee plants var. Caturra. Coffee seeds were inoculated with a concentration of 1×106 conidia mL-1 of water, planted and organized in a completely randomized experimental design, with three repetitions of eight plants per strain. At 30, 60, and 120 days after seedling emergence, samples of five leaf segments per plant, 5 mm in diameter, were taken to evaluate endophytic activity. The start of fungal growth (days), initial fungal growth (%) and total fungal growth (%) were recorded. To evaluate the effect of fungal strains on the growth of coffee plants, plant height, stem diameter, number of leaves, leaf pairs, number of branches and chlorophyll content index were evaluated. Analysis of Variance and Tukey's mean separation test (p ≤ 0.05) were performed. Three strains of A. uredinophilum (CHE-CNRCB 435, 616, and 988), two of S. lanosoniveum (CHE-CNRCB 438 and 544), and three of Trichoderma (CHE-CNRCB 398, 1057, and 1062) showed endophytic activity higher than 70%. The three Trichoderma spp. strains induced better growth in coffee plants.

Resilience of progeny of Swietenia macrophylla to the simulated attack of Hypsipyla grandella in nursery

Abstract The resilience of seedlings from four open-pollinated families of Swietenia macrophylla to simulated attacks by Hypsipyla grandella was evaluated at the nursery stage to determine the possibility of early selection of individuals from the most resilient families and establish sustainable forest plantations in the Peruvian Amazon. Significant differences were detected among families for diameter (D), sprout length (SL), and basal sprout area (BA). The coefficient of determination for genotypic effects was moderate (range: 0.248 - 0.457) for H (plant height), D, SL, and BA, and low (< 0.15) for plant base height (HB), number of sprouts (NR), number of branches (NB), and number of leaves (NL). The genetic correlation for the traits H, D, SL, BA, NR, NB, and NL ranged from 0.228 to 0.996, indicating that an increase in one of these traits can result in an increase in the other. This is important because there is the possibility of early selection of families for the traits D, SL, and BA for the development of plantations with families resistant to attack. Therefore, the genetic and phenotypic variation observed in the families suggests the possibility of early selection as a promising strategy for genetic improvement programs, using a larger number of families than those used in the present study, since theoretically larger samples may contain greater genetic variation between and within families.

Antixenosis of different maize genotypes in storage affects feeding preferences and oviposition of Sitophilus zeamais Moth

Abstract During corn storage, significant losses occur due to pest attacks, especially the weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky. This study aimed to evaluate the feeding preference of Sitophilus zeamais on seeds of stored corn genotypes. The tests were carried out in the laboratory of the Center for Scientific and Technological Development in Pest and Disease Management (NUDEMAFI) at the Center for Agricultural Sciences and Engineering of the Federal University of Espírito Santo (UFES) in Alegre, in an air-conditioned room with a maximum temperature of 26.4 and a minimum of 26.2 ºC (± 2 ºC) and humidity between 70% and 75%. A host preference test with free choice was performed on insects from Nudemafi breeding, aged 5 to 10 days, in six (6) arenas with six (6) replicates using a completely randomized design (CRD). After 96 hours, the following were evaluated for each genotype: number of insects attracted, insect weight, number of infested seeds, percentage of seed loss, and 60 days after infestation, the percentage of emerged insects, physical and bromatological composition were determined. The results showed significant differences in the preference of Sitophilus zeamais adults in relation to the maize genotypes analyzed; the lowest food preference was observed in the Purple genotype (4.1%), followed by AG1051, which obtained 8.3% respectively. The genotypes presented antixenosis due to the effect of the nutritional properties and physical hardness of the seed.

Protocol for in vitro germination and micropropagation of Himatanthus Sucuuba (Spruce ex Müll. arg.) Woodson

Resumo Himatanthus sucuuba possui importância na medicina popular e é amplamente utilizada como antitumoral, antifúngica, vermífuga e anti-anêmica. Nesse contexto, objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver protocolo de germinação e micropropagação in vitro de H. sucuuba. As sementes foram imersas em solução de Cabrio Top 1,0% (v/v) por uma hora em agitador magnético e depois em solução de NaOCl diluída a 0,1% (v/v) durante 30 minutos sob agitação, seguido de imersão em álcool 70% por 1 minuto, posteriormente as sementes foram enxaguadas quatro vezes com água destilada estéril, depois foram inoculadas em meio MS suplementados com as auxinas AIA, ANA e AIB, nas concentrações de 0,0; 1,0; 3,0; 5,0 mg L-1. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, utilizando 10 tratamentos com 3 repetições de 10 sementes (n=30). Foi observado que o meio MS suplementado com AIA (5,0 mg L-1) resultou em 80% de germinação e plântulas com 5,97 cm de altura e 4,2 segmentos nodais. Para estimular o enraizamento, os segmentos nodais foram cortados e inoculados em meio MS acrescido de BAP (0,1 mg L-1) e em interação com as auxinas AIA, 2,4-D e ANA, nas concentrações de 0,0; 3,0; 5,0 e 8,0 mg L-1 e, mantidos em sala de crescimento a 25 ± 2 °C, com fotoperíodo de 16 h. A combinação BAP+AIA (0,1 + 8,0 mg L-1) apresentou os melhores resultados com 30% de enraizamento, 100% de brotações e 40% de formação de calos. Em conclusão, a propagação in vitro é uma técnica promissora para produção de mudas in vitro de H. succuba.

Abstract Himatanthus sucuuba is important in folk medicine and is widely used as an antitumor, antifungal, vermifuge and anti-anemic agent1. In this context, the objective of this study was to develop a protocol for in vitro germination and micropropagation of H. sucuuba. The seeds were immersed in a 1.0% (v/v) Cabrio Top solution for one hour on a magnetic stirrer and then in a 0.1% (v/v) diluted NaOCl solution for 30 minutes under agitation, followed by immersion in 70% alcohol for 1 minute. Subsequently, the seeds were rinsed four times with sterile distilled water and then inoculated in MS medium supplemented with the auxins AIA, ANA and AIB at concentrations of 0.0; 1.0; 3.0; 5.0 mg L-1. The experimental design was completely randomized, using 10 treatments with 3 replicates of 10 seeds (n = 30). It was observed that the MS medium supplemented with IAA (5.0 mg L-1) resulted in 80% germination and seedlings with 5.97 cm in height and 4.2 nodal segments. To stimulate rooting, the nodal segments were cut and inoculated in MS medium supplemented with BAP (0.1 mg L-1) and in interaction with the auxins IAA, 2,4-D and ANA, at concentrations of 0.0; 3.0; 5.0 and 8.0 mg L-1 and kept in a growth room at 25 ± 2 °C, with a photoperiod of 16 h. The combination BAP+IAA (0.1 + 8.0 mg L-1) showed the best results with 100% sprouting, 40% callus formation and 30% rooting. In conclusion, in vitro propagation is a promising technique to produce H. sucuuba seedlings, however, hormonal adjustments are necessary.

Pitahaya (Hylocereus guatemalensis) explants from areoles: Protocol for in vitro regeneration and successful acclimatization

Resumen La micropropagación in vitro de pitahaya se ha presentado como una alternativa para la obtención de material vegetal de alta calidad y producción masiva en espacios reducidos y controlados. El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo lograr la regeneración in vitro de brotes y raíces de H. guatemalensis a partir de areolas y su supervivencia durante la aclimatación ex vitro. Se evaluaron diferentes tratamientos con medios de cultivo, reguladores de crecimiento y sustratos para obtener plantas con un desarrollo normal. La regeneración de brotes a partir de areolas se logró desde los 14 días, enriqueciendo el medio Murashige and Skoog (MS) con concentraciones diferentes de bencilaminopurina (BAP). La inducción de brotes sin formación de callos y con una mayor longitud y diámetro de los mismos, se logró empleando medio Woody Plant Medium (WPM) sin citoquininas. Por otro lado, la inducción de raíces inició a los 14 días obteniéndose entre un 90 y 100% de explantes enraizados, siendo el mayor número de raíces producido en medios suplementados con ácido indolbutírico (AIB), y las mayores longitudes con el medio MS sin reguladores. El 100% de supervivencia se alcanzó empleando una mezcla de perlita y turba en proporción 1:1, así como mayores valores de longitud y diámetro de cladodios. Este estudio reporta, por primera vez, un protocolo para la regeneración in vitro de explantes de pitahaya H. guatemalensis a partir de areolas, así como su aclimatación exitosa.

Abstract In vitro micropropagation of pitahaya has been presented as an alternative for obtaining high quality plant material and mass production in reduced and controlled spaces. The present study aimed to achieve in vitro regeneration of shoots and roots of H. guatemalensis from areoles and their survival during ex vitro acclimatization. Different treatments with culture media, growth regulators and substrates were evaluated to obtain plants with normal development. Shoot regeneration from areoles was achieved 14 days, enriching the Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium with different concentrations of benzylaminopurine (BAP). The induction of shoots without callus formation and with greater shoot length and diameter was achieved using Woody Plant Medium (WPM) without cytokinins. On the other hand, root induction began at 14 days, obtaining between 90 and 100% of rooted explants, with the highest number of roots produced in media supplemented with indolbutyric acid (IBA), and the greatest lengths with MS medium without regulators. 100% survival was achieved using a mixture of perlite and peat in a 1:1 ratio, as well as higher values of cladode length and diameter. This study reports, for the first time, the protocols for in vitro regeneration of pitahaya H. guatemalensis explants from areoles, as well as their successful acclimatization.

Annona deceptrix as a potential biofactory for secondary metabolites using plant cell and tissue cultures

Abstract Plant biotechnology is a powerful tool that has enabled the transformation of plant cells into small-scale biofactories to produce secondary metabolites. These compounds can be synthesized in laboratory settings on a large scale, independent of spatial, resource, or environmental constraints. Identifying plant species with promising phytochemical profiles is crucial to obtaining bioactive products with high market demand and commercial value. The purpose of the present review is to highlight the potential of Annona deceptrix as a biotechnological resource, based on findings from previous studies conducted on other Annona species. Despite belonging to a botanical family with a well-established track record in the production of characteristic and biologically active secondary metabolites-particularly those with agrochemical relevance-A. deceptrix remains underutilized and understudied. Exploring its biotechnological potential is essential, as establishing this species in vitro would allow the development of callus production protocols, characterization of its cell growth kinetics, and the subsequent extraction of high-quality bioactive compounds. These extracts could serve as innovative solutions to challenges across various industries, ultimately leading to the development of marketable final products.

Genetic improvement in coffee (Coffea arabica L.) cultivation: Methodological advances and application proposal using traditional methods and biotechnological tools

Resumen El café es un cultivo muy importante a nivel nacional y mundial, siendo Perú el primer exportador de café orgánico. Es originario de África y la especie más importante es Coffea arabica. El objetivo del presente trabajo fue realizar una revisión de literatura acerca del germoplasma utilizado y los métodos de mejoramiento genético empleados en el cultivo de café, con la finalidad de proponer un esquema de mejoramiento que incluya la aplicación de métodos tradicionales y herramientas biotecnológicas para el mejoramiento del cultivo de café. Se utilizó información procedente de programas de mejoramiento genético en Brasil, Colombia y Centroamérica y otras instituciones dedicadas al manejo, investigación y comercialización del cultivo de café. Los métodos más utilizados para el mejoramiento genético son el Pedigree, el retrocruzamiento y la producción de híbridos F1 mediante embriogénesis somática. En Brasil, Colombia y otros países se están utilizando marcadores moleculares para desarrollar cultivares con resistencia a roya en menor periodo de tiempo. Finalmente, la estrategia de mejoramiento a implementar es la piramidización de genes para resistencia a roya mediante el uso de marcadores moleculares. Esta estrategia consiste en introgresar el gen SH3 presente en la especie C. liberica en el cultivar catimor, el cual es de alta productividad, adaptabilidad y posee los genes de resistencia a roya SH6, SH7, SH8 y SH9. Esta propuesta es de gran importancia en países como Perú, donde el café representa un producto estratégico de exportación. Esquemas de mejoramiento que incorporen la piramidización de genes mediante el uso de marcadores moleculares no solo mejora la eficiencia en la selección de cultivares con resistencia a la roya, sino que también puede acelerar los programas de mejoramiento al reducir los ciclos de evaluación fenotípica prolongada. En la práctica, esto podría traducirse en cultivares más productivos, resistentes a factores bióticos y abióticos y adaptados a diferentes tipos de ambientes. Esto marcaria una nueva etapa en el mejoramiento genético del café en Perú, basado en la agricultura de precisión y sostenibilidad.

Abstract Coffee is a very important crop both nationally and globally, with Peru being the leading exporter of organic coffee, is native to Africa, and the most important species is Coffea arabica. The objective of this work was to carry out a literature review about the germplasm used and the genetic improvement methods used in coffee cultivation, with the purpose of proposing an improvement scheme that includes the application of traditional methods and biotechnological tools for improvement of coffee cultivation. Information from genetic improvement programs in Brazil, Colombia and Central America and other institutions dedicated to the management, research and commercialization of coffee cultivation was used. The most used methods for genetic improvement are Pedigree, backcrossing and the production of F1 hybrids through somatic embryogenesis. In Brazil, Colombia and other countries, molecular markers are being used to develop cultivars with rust resistance in a shorter period. Finally, the breeding strategy to be implemented is the pyramiding of genes for rust resistance using molecular markers. This strategy consists of introgressing the SH3 gene present in the C. liberica species into the catimor cultivar, which is highly productive and has the rust resistance genes SH6, SH7, SH8 and SH9. This proposal is of great importance in countries like Peru, where coffee represents a strategic export product. Breeding schemes that incorporate gene pyramiding using molecular markers not only improve the efficiency of selecting cultivars with resistance to coffee rust but can also accelerate breeding programs by reducing lengthy phenotypic evaluation cycles. In practice, this could translate into more productive cultivars that are resistant to biotic and abiotic factors and adapted to different types of environments. This would mark a new stage in coffee genetic improvement in Peru, based on precision agriculture and sustainability.

The role of artificial intelligence in sustainable agriculture in Costa Rica: An integrated evaluation using structural equation modeling, text mining, and scenario analysis

Abstract This study examines the increasing role of artificial intelligence (AI) in Costa Rica’s agricultural sector, emphasizing its potential to enhance sustainability, resource management, and market competitiveness. Using a mixed-methods approach, the research integrates structural equation modeling (SEM), multivariate regression analysis, text mining, and scenario analysis to provide a comprehensive evaluation of AI adoption. AI-driven solutions optimize key agricultural processes, including climate pattern prediction, soil condition monitoring, crop disease detection, and pest management. Quantitative findings indicate a strong correlation between AI adoption and improved productivity, economic benefits, and environmental conservation, particularly through optimized fertilizer and pesticide use and enhanced water management. However, challenges such as high implementation costs, limited digital infrastructure, and farmer resistance remain significant barriers. Text mining analysis reveals widespread concerns over data privacy, technical complexity, and financial investment, highlighting the importance of targeted training programs. Scenario analysis further suggests that government support and technological advancements could significantly accelerate AI adoption over the next decade. The study underscores the need for strategic partnerships among government agencies, educational institutions, and technology providers to bridge the digital divide and encourage AI adoption. These findings not only inform Costa Rican agricultural policy and innovation strategies but also provide a replicable model for other emerging economies aiming to integrate AI sustainably into agricultural systems.