Introduction

The video game sector has become one of the entertainment industries that generates highest revenue worldwide (^{Newzoo, 2022}). At the time of this writing, the number of people who play video games regularly amounts to 3.07 billion, almost 40% of the planet’ s total population. The region with the largest number of players is Asia, followed by Europe, Latin America, and North America (^{Statista, 2021}). Revenues for this sector worldwide are expected to reach $423.5 billion in 2026 (^{Statista, 2023}). These data show a growing trend in the video game industry.

Given that a significant part of the population plays video games, advertisers, advertising professionals, and video game developers are constantly thinking about the best ways to reach their audience through video games. In fact, video games offer advertisers an excellent channel to achieve their communication objectives under the guise of entertainment (^{Kretchmer, 2004}). To this end, advertisers use what is known as advergaming, that is to say, the practice of using video games to advertise a brand, product, organization, or idea (^{Pons, 2006}). Advergaming encompasses three modalities: advergames, around-game advertising (AGA), and in-game advertising (IGA).

Advergames are video games designed by advertisers for users to play, usually for free. They are usually easy to play, have a short duration and offer quick rewards (^{Redondo, 2012}). These video games allow companies to reach a specific public, promote engagement and introduce messages in a non-intrusive way (^{Tuten and Solomon, 2013}).

AGA is a type of advertising that, as its name says, is “around” the video game. It is similar to TV commercial advertising in that it interrupts users in order to impact them. It is now frequently used in video games on mobile devices. There are four types of AGA advertising: banners, interstitials, sponsorship, and cross-promotions (^{Smith et al., 2014}). Banners are advertising pieces, usually graphic, that are inserted in digital media such as websites or apps (^{Novak and Hoffman, 1997}). Interstitials are advertising spaces that interrupt the player’s action to show an advertisement. They usually appear at the beginning of the game, between levels, or at the end of the game. They can also provide incentives to motivate players to play; for example, when a player runs out of lives in Candy Crush Saga, he or she can watch an ad, and this action rewards them with an extra life to continue playing. Sponsorships are agreements between brands and video games where brands pay in exchange for appearing in some video game-related activity, such as when Honda paid Riot Games to have its logo shown in a League of Legends tournament. Finally, cross-promotions are the creation of alliances to promote products that benefit both brands, such as when DC Comics and Epic Games launched the physical comic book Batman x Fortnite: Point Zero. Each issue of these comics had a code that could be redeemed inside the Batman game to personalize the physical appearance of a character (i.e., skins).

Finally, IGA, according to its most cited definition (see methodology section and Table 1), is “the placement of brands in games” (^{Yang et al., 2006}). An example of IGA is being able to drive one of three different Mercedes-Benz models (namely the GLA, the 300 SL Roadster, and the Silver Arrow) that are in Mario Kart 8 for Wii U and Nintendo Switch.

This article focuses on this last modality of advergaming. Since Scott Adams made the first IGA in his 1978 video game Adventureland (“The Making of Adventureland,” 2006), this format has changed substantially, especially in recent years, thanks to video games such as Fortnite in 2017. The most cited definition is twenty-years old and needs to be revised.

In this article, we analyze the given definitions of IGA according to the characteristics that any academic definition must have (^{Cabré, 1993}; ^{Pavel & Nolet, 2001}; ^{Valero & Alcina, 2015}). In addition to investigating the definition of IGA in academia, we investigate which characteristics the industry considers important. These studies lead us to identify the need to propose a decision tree. Scholars and professionals can use this visual tool to decide which term (i.e., advertainment, advergame, product placement, IGA, AGA) is the most appropriate for each situation. Finally, we propose an updated definition of IGA.

Defining IGA

The precise definition of concepts is a fundamental pillar for the construction of valid and reliable knowledge. Consistency in terminology is essential for using a common conceptual framework, avoiding misunderstanding and facilitating comparability and replicability of studies. Furthermore, by having a shared understanding of what constitutes IGA, academics, marketers, advertisers, and game developers can have better communication and align in terms of strategies, implementation, outcome measurement and the implications of IGA.

^{Sartori (1984)} proposes a three-step approach to concept definition as mentioned by ^{Valsangiacomo (2022)}: reconstructing the concept, creating a new definition, and identifying the defining properties of the concept. The first step in Sartori’s proposal involves examining the history of the concept and its current status in the literature. In the case of IGA, this would involve reviewing how the concept has been defined and used in the extant literature. The second step is the creation of a new definition of the concept. For IGA, this could involve proposing a definition that reflects the current characteristics and uses of IGA in the advertising industry. Finally, the third step is to identify the defining properties of the concept (i.e., the conditions necessary for the concept to be true and unique.) For IGA, these properties could include features such as the integration of advertising into gaming.

Although Sartori’s approach provides a useful structure for defining concepts, it also presents certain limitations. For example, the second step of creating a new definition can be problematic if it is based on an insufficient or biased understanding of the concept. In the case of IGA, being a term that has both academic and professional relevance, there is a risk that key-defining characteristics of the concept may be omitted if we only focus on the academic literature. We believe that it would be more effective to perform the third step before the second in this case. Identifying the defining properties of the concept may provide a more solid basis for the creation of an updated definition. This change of order would allow for greater flexibility and adaptability in concept formation and could result in a definition that is more precise and relevant.

Moreover, the third step of Sartori’s concept definition theory is ambiguous because Sartori speaks of true elements by definition to identify them. Instead, we structure the definition of concept properties by applying the recommendations of ^{Cabré (1993)}, ^{Pavel & Nolet (2001)}, and ^{Valero & Alcina (2015)}. These authors provide valuable guidelines for the delimitation of concepts through the identification of their essential characteristics. Their linguistic approach offers a complementary perspective that can enrich and deepen our understanding of concepts, and in particular, of the concept of IGA. The recommendations of these authors focus on two fundamental aspects of definitions: content and form.

The content is the conceptual part of a definition and its essence. ^{Sartori (1984)} implicitly emphasizes content to identify the defining properties of a concept. In this sense, a good definition must situate the concept within its field of specialty; then, it has to specify the essential characteristics that differentiate it from the rest of the terms. These characteristics can be intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic or inherent characteristics of the object are those that can be observed by using the senses and do not require additional knowledge about their use or origin. For example, size, shape, color, or design are intrinsic characteristics of material objects. Extrinsic or relational characteristics are those that describe the relationship of the product to other entities. There are two subgroups of this type of characteristic: use and origin. Location, rank, functioning, or application are examples of use; method of manufacture, country of origin, or time are examples of origin (^{Wüster & Cabré, 2010}).

Form refers to how the concept is expressed linguistically. The concept has to be understood and avoid confusion. To this end, a definition should a) be simple, b) avoid comparison of concepts, c) be self-sufficient, and d) be adapted to recipients or audience. Simplicity (a) implies the definition to be concise and clear, avoiding the use of ambiguous words. Avoiding the comparison of concepts (b) means not defining a concept by negating or equating it to another. Self-sufficiency (c) means that the definition should not depend on any other element; therefore, another concept should not be explained within the same definition. Finally, the definition must be adapted to its addressees (d); it means that the definition must have an adequate expression so that it fits the receiver’s profile correctly and can be understood.

To carry out the process, we will conduct two studies. Firstly, we will run a content analysis of existing academic literature and definitions of IGA. The objective of this study will be to identify common characteristics and uses of IGA. The characteristics of IGA are necessary to differentiate the term from other similar terms, such as advergames. Secondly, we will run a survey of players and advertising professionals to obtain their perspectives on IGA. This second study will help us understand how IGA is perceived and experienced in practice.

Study 1

Methodology

A systematic review was carried out with the aim of finding definitions of in-game advertising to subsequently identify its defining characteristics. The PRISMA guidelines (^{Page et al., 2021}) were used to guide the systematic review. A search was run in Scopus and Web of Science multidisciplinary databases. Records that used the term “in-game” or “IGA” in the title, abstract, or as keywords, and that also included any term derived from “advert” (e.g., advertisement, advertising) were selected. These searches retrieved a total of 322 records. Ninety-three documents that were repeated in the two databases were eliminated. Two other articles that were not written in English or Spanish were eliminated. Thirty-eight articles were also eliminated after reading the title and abstract because they were unrelated to advertising, video games, or the acronym IGA stood for something else (e.g., “Cholestatic jaundice and IgA nephropathy induced by OTC muscle building agent superdrol”). At this point, 189 articles remained. Twenty-nine documents were inaccessible; none of these records made direct reference to IGA definitions.

The remaining 160 documents were read in search of definitions. Definitions were only considered when the authors wrote: “IGA is,” “IGA refers to,” or similar. For example, we considered a definition neither the sentence “in-game advertisements can be further described as either ‘environment ads’ or ‘immersive ads.’ (...) in-game ads are incorporated into the game itself, either as static displays or interactive elements...” (^{Interactive Advertising Bureau, 2010}), nor “companies placing their brands within a game and engaging in in-game advertising (IGA)” (^{Walsh et al, 2014}).

Among the 160 papers, 43 articles were found to have a definition of IGA. Of these, 16 articles had a definition created by the author(s). None mentioned how they had developed it. Another 11 articles cited previous definitions, but had modified them, or created their own definition based on statements by other authors; for these reasons, we consider them as new definitions. Finally, among the remaining 16 articles to reach 43, six articles had a definition and also referred to six documents that had a different definition and were not found in the initial search. Therefore, the total number of definitions found was 49. Once the articles corresponding to those six references were encountered, six new definitions were found. Four had the author’s own definitions and two created their own definition by quoting previous definitions or partially relying on statements by other authors already present in the initial search. Therefore, a total of 33 different definitions were found.

Source: Authors elaboration.

Figure 1 PRISMA search and selection of reports 

Study 2

Difference between product placement and in-game advertising

Throughout the research, different terms have been found to refer to IGA, such as in-game placements (Çeltek, 2010), product placement in video games (^{Toh & Leng, 2014}), or video games brand placements (^{Nelson et al., 2006}). These terms refer to product placement to facilitate the understanding of the IGA concept. However, they lead to confusion as they incur in a comparison that restricts the concept of IGA. In addition to these terms, there are several definitions, both academic and professional, that compare IGA with product placement. It is likely that, in part, this confusion is due to the fact that the placement of a brand or product in a film is called product placement, while when it is placed in a video game it is called IGA. For these reasons, it is also necessary to analyze the other differences between the two terms.

According to Smit et al. (2009) product placement is the same as brand placement and in- program sponsoring. ^{Balasubramanian (1994)} proposed one of the most widely cited definitions of product placement. He defined it as “a paid product aimed at influencing movie (or television) audiences via the planned and unobtrusive entry of a branded product into a movie (or television program)”. ^{Guo et al. (2019)} summarize three characteristics of placement: a) planned and deliberate integration, b) the ability to discreetly convey an intention to persuade, and c) intentional integration for money or other valuable goods. These three features are also characteristic of IGA, which explains why the two terms are often confused. The differences consist that a) IGA occurs only in video games while product placement does not exist in video games but is referred to as product placement or brand placement in TV shows or movies; another difference is that b) IGA players can interact directly with brands and/or products, such as the Pepsi cans in Bionic Commando that provide extra energy, while in product placement there is no such direct interaction between the user and the brand or product. This unique capacity for direct interaction is one of the defining properties of IGA that we have identified in our linguistic analysis, and which distinguishes IGA from related terms.

Product placement has a wide range of benefits (^{Redondo & Bernal, 2016}; ^{Pillai et al., 2014}) and possibilities. Smith et al. (2014) listed some examples, such as advertisements that sponsor programs; displays of logos, products, or brands in a scene; or entire programs developed in collaboration with sponsors in which the brand becomes an intrinsic part of the program itself.

Source: Authors elaboration.

Figure 2 Decision tree to differentiate between IGA, AGA, and Advergame 

This last example is similar to the advergame, so the authors argue that product placement encompasses both IGA and advergame. In line with this opinion, Aliagas et al. (2021) commented that in the video game industry there are two ways of using product placement, the first is called advergame and the second is IGA. However, we argue that IGA should not be defined as product placement in video games, since doing so would be adding confusion by attributing to the term characteristics of others (e.g., attributing to product placement the ability to interact or the ability to place an aesthetic product on the protagonist that can distort the image, such as a Spiderman costume). In the case of attributing these characteristics to product placement, it would be necessary to stop using the other terms (e.g., IGA, advergame) with the consequent loss of nuances when communicating. To facilitate the decision of academics and practitioners on which term to use in each case, a decision tree has been created (Figure 2).

Unlike existing definitions, the decision tree takes into account factors specific to video games. For example, we consider interactivity (i.e., being part of the playable elements,) as a key factor in in-game advertising. These factors are unique to video games and have a significant impact on how in-game advertising is perceived and interacted with.

General Discussion

Many definitions of IGA have been given; however, these definitions have not been developed according to the principles that a correct academic definition should have. Moreover, most of them are outdated and do not consider the possible advances of the IGA, such as the inclusion of content within the video game (e.g., trailer for Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, released in 2019). Moreover, there are definitions that could harbor AGA in them. For example, ^{Smith et al. (2020}) state that “in-game advertising consists of placing an advertiser’s brand in an existing commercial game to promote its products or services.” Therefore, according to this definition, advertising placed in a banner is IGA. Conversely, ^{Vashisht et al. (2020)} defines IGA as “the integration of non-fictional products and brands within the game environment of video games and computer games through marketing communication mechanisms in simulated real life”. Therefore, according to this definition, advertising placed in a banner is not IGA (in fact, it is AGA). If these authors run a study on banner congruence effects, the former would make conclusions about IGA, while the latter would make conclusions on a different kind of communication, likely, AGA. These results would harm research, since we are talking about different types of advergaming connected to the same empirical results.

The variety of existing interpretations and continuous advances in the field highlight the need for a precise and adequate definition of IGA. Following Sartori’s (1984) proposal for the creation of a revised and improved definition, we have carried out steps one and three, which consist of reconstructing the concept and identifying the defining properties of the concept. Now, we will focus on the second step, which is the proposal of an updated definition.

Based on the analyses made of the academic and professional definitions, IGA should be placed within the field of video games and persuasive communication. If we extend IGA to the general field of games, we run the risk of including board games and other formats that are not relevant. Although the context may clarify what type of game we are referring to, a precise definition must adequately delimit the concept. At this point, it is important to note that the metaverse is not a video game. Furthermore, if we limit the definition to specific terms such as ‘advertising’, we might exclude related areas such as public relations.

As for the characteristics of use, the one most often mentioned is that IGA must be integrated into the video game environment. Different terms related to integration are used in the first words of the investigated academic definitions. These are: “insertion”, “incorporation”, “inclusion”, “positioning”, “integration”, and “placement”. Although they all have similar meanings, they also have enough differences to elucidate which one best fits the term. According to Merriam- Webster, “position” and “place” are similar and both mean to put in a particular place or position; “insert” is to put or introduce into the body of something; “include” is to be part of a whole or group. “Integrate” and “incorporate” are similar, but “incorporate” refers to being part of an existing whole and “integrate” does not. Since, as we have seen, the IGA can be created during the development of the video game itself or afterwards, the most precise word to be used to define IGA is “integrate’’.

Several scholars point out as a characteristic of use that IGA can be integrated into the story or dialogues. To encompass aspects beyond the story and dialogues, we believe that IGA should be part of the playable elements of the video game. We understand as “playable element” any essential narrative component that makes up the structure of the game, that is, the characters, the dialogues, the visual elements and any element inherent to the world created for the game, including the game mechanics (i.e., the interactions and systems that govern the way the player interacts with the game). This is important, as it is the way to differentiate IGA from AGA, because the former is integrated directly into the playable elements of the game, while the latter is situated ‘around’ the video game.

Another important characteristic refers to what is incorporated in video games. Almost all academic definitions talk about the incorporation of brands or products, which means that it does not encompass everything that is considered IGA. Other types of IGA are, for example, rewards (Pepsi vending machines in Bionic Commando, which provide you extra energy when you use them), customizations (Iron Man skin in Fortnite), advertisements in traditional locations (e.g., a soccer field billboard in FIFA) or imaginary ones (e.g., holographic digital sign in Cyberpunk 2077). Therefore, if we group all types of IGA together we are talking about different types of content, understanding it as any material that is customized for an external organization and has a persuasive purpose.

Another important point in the definition of IGA is that the brand, product or service advertised cannot be fictitious. This is because the IGA has to be paid, earned, or exchanged, and a fictitious brand does not use any of these mechanisms to appear in video games. Moreover, the consumer could never acquire it. On some occasions it has happened that a fictitious brand has ended up appearing in the real world, such as Fallout’s Nuka Cola; however, it cannot be considered IGA since it is a cross-promotion, and that belongs to the AGA.

Finally, IGA can be used to make video games look more realistic. This is a non-essential feature that neither AGA nor advergames have. Inserting branding on billboards with basketball court advertising, as in NBA 2K, or having car branding visible in games, like Gran Turismo, makes players feel a sense of greater reality and congruence that generates brand recognition (^{Aliagas et al., 2021}). Advertising must be real and consistent in order not to generate rejection, so the best option is to use brands that make sense with the video game itself.

Therefore, we define IGA. IGA is the integration of persuasive content, created for a real advertiser, that is part of the playable elements of a video game which has not been developed by the advertiser.

Conclusions

With video games becoming one of the most significant cultural industries globally and their increasing ubiquity, IGA appears to be a persuasive communication tool with considerable potential. In fact, it is foreseeable that advertisers will increasingly look to it to reach their target population. Despite this, there is still no definition of IGA accepted by most academics and there is a great deal of confusion among practitioners about what IGA is. Having a definition accepted by academics and, ideally, also by professionals will foster the development of the area. Furthermore, it would have the potential to improve communication and understanding between academics and practitioners, and to facilitate the development of more effective theories and practices in the field of video game advertising. That is why we have presented an updated definition of IGA that tries to conform to the canons of a good definition. In addition, specifically in the advertising industry, it will facilitate the development of more coherent marketing strategies, enable more accurate measurement of campaign effectiveness, and enhance communication between game developers and advertisers.

To develop a precise definition, a systematic review has been made of academic definitions of IGA published in papers indexed in the Scopus and Web of Science databases. The definitions found were analyzed and the characteristics of IGA essential for its correct delimitation were identified. The findings were discussed. Subsequently, professionals from different areas and who have worked with IGA, were interviewed to get their vision. These professionals have provided a complementary vision to the academic one. Among other findings, the professionals who use the terms IGA, product placement, or AGA on a daily basis mix the terms up. To solve this problem, and to quickly differentiate the various terms, a decision diagram has been proposed (Figure 1). We believe that this handy tool will help both scholars and practitioners to use related terms more precisely, avoiding confusion.

Finally, all the research has been synthesized in a new definition that follows the canons on the characteristics of a good definition. This definition differentiates IGA with respect to other similar concepts and adds a long-term vision. The definition is intended to encompass a wide range of scenarios that could be understood as IGA, with the recognition that significant technological changes in video games may necessitate future revisions.